On June 30, 1212, Al-Andalusian General Aben Qades surrendered the Castle of Calatrava, unable to quell the overwhelming assault launched upon it by a Crusader force. The Vizier of the Almohads was seething … how could that unloyal commander lose Calatrava so easily to the 'infidels'? Aben Qades had to pay… with his life! This act of wrath would prove unwise, for the Al-Andalusian troops allied to the Almohads would not forget the assassination of their commander. The Vizier's rash decision would return to haunt the Almohads just when they

needed their allies the most: on a scorching July morning, at a place called Las Navas de Tolosa. THE CRUSADE In July 1195, the Almohad dynasty had inflicted a decisive defeat on King Alfonso VIII of Castile at the Battle of Alarcos. The consequences of the battle had been momentous and lasting. Following their victory, the Almohads consolidated their hold over Southern Spain and forged an alliance with the Kingdoms of Léon and Navarre, threatening Castile and Aragón. More importantly, every plan to resume

the 'Reconquista', or 'Reconquest' of Muslim Spain had to be abandoned. King Alfonso himself had barely made it back alive from Alarcos. However, while the Castilian monarch had been beaten, he was not defeated, not yet. The desire for battle had not been extinguished, and those flames would be fanned by Alfonso's first-born son, the infante Don Fernando. Thus, Castile, the Almohads, and their allies, were set to collide once more at what is considered the most decisive battle of the Reconquista: Las Navas de Tolosa. In early 1210, the infante sent a letter to Pope

Innocent III, pleading for his blessing and support in the fight against the Almohads. The Pope was no stranger to inciting large-scale wars against 'infidels' of all persuasions, having called for a Crusade against the Albigensians only one year earlier. Thus, in December 1210, the Pope wrote to most of the bishops and archbishops in Spain, exhorting them to rally around Don Fernando in his fight against the Muslims. In his missives, Innocent offered a total "remission of sins to those Spaniards or foreigners that out of their own devotion would faithfully carry out such an endeavour." Papal blessing? Check! Absolution

from sin? Check! A call to arms extended to more than one country? Check again! Innocent III had thus called for a Crusade against the Almohads. Fernando, his father Alfonso, and the Kingdom of Castille were enthused by this turn of events, the Kingdoms of Navarre and Léon less so. These states maintained good relationships with the Almohads and their Al-Andalusian allies, and considered Castille more of a threat than their Muslim neighbours! In January 1211, Innocent sent a follow up mail blast to the Spanish bishops, asking them to exert all their influence to keep Navarre and Léon at bay lest they sabotage the Crusade.

Meanwhile, Alfonso and Fernando were waiting for the right occasion to galvanise their Kingdom and initiate hostilities. The opportunity for this presented itself in September of 1211, when the Almohads seized the castle of Salvatierra, previously held by the Knights of the Order of Calatrava. Alfonso convened his war council in Toledo, laying plans for a large-scale expedition to take place in the summer of the following year. The King then sent Gerardo, bishop of Segovia, to Rome, with the goal of obtaining a new Papal bull, calling for all Christians to join the

fight. According to Muslim chroniclers, Innocent mobilised an army of friars on a recruiting mission, seeking volunteers from Portugal to Constantinople. It appears that Alfonso's own recruitment drive in France was more successful. His personal physician, Master Arnaldo, and his jester Gavandan, successfully recruited the nobility of Poitiers and Gascony. However, Alfonso had lost a precious asset: his son Fernand/ By all accounts, Fernando was a brave fighter and skilled commander. However, after conducting a raiding expedition, against the Muslims, the infante had

died of a fever on October 14, 1211, aged only 22. In February 1212, Alfonso received the Pope's condolences, alongside reassurances of the Roman church's support. In April, Innocent secured a truce with Navarre and Léon, protecting Castille's flanks and allowing Alfonso to prepare his fonsado, or large-scale campaign into enemy territory. This was not a simple cabalgada, or raid. It required a King to muster all available men and resources for a chance at victory. Alfonso's army was organised around a core of professional and semi-professional soldiers,

with units of local and foreign volunteers. As was customary, the King would travel with his army, surrounded by an elite Guards corps of mounted knights. The monarch could then rely on the 'mesnada real': several squadrons of heavy shock cavalry recruited from amongst the 'ricos hombres' - literally 'rich men', usually meaning the barons and counts of the realm. As formidable as they were, these units were not as professional as those provided by the Military Religious Orders such as the Order of Calatrava, Santiago, the Templars, and the Hospitaliers, all of whom would

participate in the Crusade. These ranks would be swelled up by the municipal militias, recruited locally, and constituted by 'peones', meaning infantrymen, and 'pardos', meaning horsemen. The latter had to buy their own horse, which could cost as much as six oxen or an entire house, which was a hefty price to pay for the benefit of galloping into a rain of Almohad arrow! Finally, Alfonso's hosts welcomed large contingents of mercenaries and foreign Crusaders, hailing from modern-day Portugal, Italy, Germany, and especially Southern France.

Let us now take a look at Alfonso's adversaries, the Almohad hosts led by the Caliph Muhammad Al-Nasir. The Almohad army was recruited from four main national groups: the Almohad tribes themselves who hailed from North Africa, the Al-Andalusian Muslims residing in Southern Spain, Arab fighters recruited amongst the Bau Hilal bedouin tribes, and finally the Oguz Turks. Each group brought their own specialty tactics to the battlefield. The Almohads generally rallied around the Caliph, protecting him in the rearguard. The Al-Andalusians contributed both heavy cavalry and projectile troops, such as the famed Balearic slingers. Finally, the Oguz and Arabs formed the bulk of the light

cavalry. The former had perfected the art of mounted archery, while the latter fought with spears and swords and were usually the first to attack. Their valour was acknowledged by Caliph Al-Nasir, so much so that an Arab's pay was 150% higher than that of an Almohad! The Castillian forces assembled in Toledo during the Spring of 1212, joined by the foreign crusaders and the allied army of the Kingdom of Aragon. The Christians started their southwards march on June 19th, 1212. Meanwhile, Al-Nasir, too, had been rallying his forces in Seville,

well-aware of Christian preparations. The Muslim hosts left their base on June 22, and headed towards Jaén. By the 23rd, the Crusader vanguard train reached the castle of Malagón, an important Almohad stronghold. Without even setting up camp, the foreign Crusaders in the vanguard seized the side towers of the fortress by storm and proceeded to mine the castle's central fortifications. Malagón fell during the night, and the following morning the garrison was executed, just before the arrival of the rearguard under Alfonso VIII. This easy victory did not galvanise

the morale of the foreign volunteers. On the contrary, incensed by the lack of booty and the scarcity of foodstuffs, they threatened to mutiny. Only the King's intervention managed to placate the seeds of sedition, spurring the host to march on and lay siege to Calatrava on June 27. The castle of Calatrava had once been the seat of the namesake military order but had since fallen into Almohad hands. Therefore, its occupation carried great strategic and symbolic significance for both parties. The fortress was a formidable obstacle, protected by 600 metres of walls and

the river Guadiana to its north, as well as by a strong garrison under Al-Andalusian commander Aben Qades. The King of Aragón, Peter II, led an assault on the northern front on the June 29th, supported by the Knights of Calatrava and units of French crusaders. By the 30th, resistance had crumbled. Aben Qades agreed to parlay, allowing to cede the fortress and its riches in exchange for the life and freedom of his garrison. A great part of the booty was transferred to the foreign Crusaders, but this did not placate their mutinous sentiment. Most of them had disagreed with Alfonso's decision to conduct the siege, as their intent was to drive

deep into enemy territory. Moreover, the French, German and Italian Crusaders were not happy with the leniency displayed towards the Muslims. On July 3, the vast majority of the foreign Crusaders deserted, leaving behind only the contingents from Narbonne, Vienne and Poitou. The archbishop of Narbonne described how the deserters 'Returned to their lands without honour nor glory." It seemed that honour and glory were less important to them than loot, for the mutinuous Crusaders rode up north and tried to sack Toledo, but the Toledan citizen's energetic

defence ensured that they returned to their lands without honour, nor glory, nor cash! Meanwhile, news of the fall of Calatrava reached the Muslims in Jaén, generating tension amongst their ranks. The Almohad vizir Aben Yamaa ordered the assassination of the disgraced Aben Qades, and later addressed the other Al-Andalusian commanders as such: "Leave the Almohad army, for we have no use for you! As God says: 'If they ride out with you they shall only cause damage and they shall sow disorder amongst your ranks'. After we are done with this expedition,

we will examine the cause of all the wicked!" Al-Nasir, on the other hand, was elated at the news that the foreign Crusaders had mutinied. Believing that Alfonso was now in a position of weakness, he ordered his armies to march north towards Baeza and beyond, eventually setting camp at Santa Elena. The Christian armies also resumed their descent, easily seizing the castle of Alarcos on July 4 amd avenging Alfonso's humiliating defeat back in 1195. On the 7th, the Castilian and Aragonese set up camp not far from Salvatierra. Along the way, Alfonso VIII and Peter II received much welcome reinforcements: a Navarrese army

led by King Sancho VII 'The Strong'. The conquest of Salvatierra by the Almohads had sparked the entire Crusade, but now the three Kings decided not to invest time nor resources in a siege, and pressed on instead. On July 11, the Christians fended off a Muslim ambush on the Fresnedas heights, and on the 13th they seized the castle of Ferral. On the 14th, the three Kings established their encampment on a nearby height, Mesa del Rey, which was immediately attacked by the Almohad cavalry. The Spanish Crusaders repulsed the assault, and their war council decided to rest for two days. Caliph Al-Nasir, encamped nearby with his

armies, attempted to provoke the Christians into battle, dispatching more mounted attacks. But the Kings did not take the bait, and their knights defeated these assaults in detail. THE BATTLE On Sunday, July 15, the three Kings Alfonso, Peter and Sancho decided they would give battle the following morning, and prepared their tactics. During the early hours of Monday the 16th, the Christian army poured into a valley close to the village of Navas de Tolosa. They occupied the Western sector of the plain, facing the Almohads and their allies, positioned over gently sloping hills in the Eastern half.

Alfonso divided his 14,000 strong army into three battalions, deployed along a north-to-south axis and facing the Almohads to the east. Each battalion was composed of a vanguard of slingers, archers and crossbowmen, with two squadrons of heavy cavalry at their rear. The left, or northernmost wing, was led by Peter II of Aragón. The centre was firmly held by Don Diego Lopez de Haro, a veteran of Alarcos. The right wing was under Sancho VII 'The Strong' of Navarre. Behind these vanguard lines, Alfonso VIII commanded a reserve of heavy cavalry.

Al-Nasir's forces, which numbered 30,000 in total, were also structured into three main blocks. The central division was made up of three lines of infantry. The first line consisted of heavy infantry armed with long spears to deter cavalry charges. This was followed by two lines of light infantry and missile troops, including slingers and archers. Each side of the infantry formation was protected by two squadrons of Al-Andalusian heavy cavalry backed by two squadrons of light horse. At the very back of the formation stood Al-Nasir's red tent,

protected by his elite 'Black Guard', which were recruited amongst Sub-Saharan Africans. The engagement was opened by Don Diego Lopez, who led a series of heavy cavalry charges against the Almohad front line. Don Diego's knights were truly formidable, especially those belonging to the religious-military orders. However, they were forced to charge uphill. The Almohad infantry maintained their ranks, breaking their momentum and unhorsing several notable noblemen. The 'Latin Chronicle of the Kings of Castile' describe the carnage as such: "They attack,

they fight everywhere, hand to hand, with spears, swords and maces … the Christians insist, the Moors resist … the fight goes on, neither one nor the other are defeated" The Almohad infantry repelled several charges, but Don Diego returned each time for more. Eventually, the Christians admitted they could not break the Muslims' spear wall, and retreated behind their own infantry. King Alfonso, not realising this was an orderly retreat, was about to order his reserve to surge forward. This would have probably resulted in a chaotic disaster, but his advisors,

the Archbishop of Toledo and knight Fernando Garcíá, managed to placate his bloodlust. However, the Al-Andalusian and Almohad horse was not so level-headed, and their cavalry squadrons on the wings charged forward in pursuit of Don Diego's knights. The latter had by then reformed behind the screen of missile troops, and thus the incoming charge was met by a deluge of slings, arrows and bolts. The Muslim cavalry was soundly beaten, and rode back towards their lines. As morale plummeted, tensions between the Al-Andalusian and the Almohad Berbers resurfaced.

Following the assassination of Aben Qades, the possibility of an Al-Andalusian mutiny was not a question of 'if', but a question of 'when'. And it happened at the worst possible moment. The Al-Andalusian heavy cavalry deserted en masse, abandoning the battlefield and leaving Al-Nasir's flanks vulnerable. King Alfonso immediately seized the opportunity, ordering his reserves to split in two and bolster the wings under Peter II and Sancho the Strong. The three Kings thus led a massive charge against the Almohad line, which soon began to crumble. King Sancho's

right wing was the first one to break through the heavy infantry and the remaining light cavalry. Sancho's knights then swung towards the centre, heading straight towards Al-Nasir's tent. As the Black Guard formed a square around him and raised their spears, the Caliph remained firm, sitting on a shield whilst holding a copy of the Quran. In previous battles, the Black Guard had been nigh invincible, but on this occasion they were gradually cut down by the charges of the Christian knights. Al-Nasir remained seated until an Arab horseman braved the

carnage to shake him and say: "Until when will you remain seated? Oh, Prince of the Believers, God's judgement has been fulfilled, his will has been accomplished, and the Muslims have perished!" The Arab then helped Al-Nasir onto a fast mare, and the two escaped by a hair's breadth. The flight of the Caliph dealt the final blow to Almohad morale, and what remained of their troops fled in disorder. The Christian cavalry gave chase, overrunning the enemy camp. Some of them indulged in looting, but the majority maintained their discipline and continued the pursuit. In

this, they were surely motivated by Jimenez de Rada, the Archbishop of Toledo, who had threatened excommunication for looters! The pursuit continued well into the evening, and only at nine that night did the Christian pursuers return to camp. Spanish chroniclers reported a total of Christian casualties not exceeding 30, which is surely propaganda. A more realistic estimate places Christian losses at 2,000, while the Almohads and allies may have suffered up to 20,000 casualties. More importantly, the defeat at Navas de Tolosa would mark the beginning of the end for Almohad

dominance in Spain, a slippery slope which propelled the momentum of the Reconquista. In the next episode we will cover the continuing expansion of the Christian kingdoms, the rise of the new Marinid dynasty in North Africa, and their inevitable clash at the Battle of Rio Salado. To make sure you don't miss that, make sure you are subscribed and have pressed the bell button to see them. Please consider liking, subscribing, commenting, and sharing - it helps immensely. Recently, we have started releasing weekly patron and YouTube member exclusive content; consider joining their

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